At first glance, Cairo can appear chaotic to outsiders. But a closer look at this “ disorder ” reveals a city of remarkable complexity, where each neighborhood is an ode to its own history. In recent decades, Cairo has undergone a dramatic transformation of urban development thanks to the introduction of compounds — gated residential communities on the city’s periphery — in the mid 1990s.

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Before the middle and upper classes began their “outward internal migration” to desert cities, Cairo was a more integrated metropolis. Residents from various socioeconomic backgrounds shared common spaces, unmarked by gates, ID checks, or QR codes. Entry to buildings was mediated through the bawab — the doorman — who might pose a couple of questions (or more out of personal curiosity). Dr. Momen El Husseiny, Assistant Professor of Architecture and Urban Design at the American University in Cairo, referred to these unfettered residences as “town plans” when speaking to Enterprise.

The origins of urban planning in Cairo: The concept of town planning, which originated in British law in 1906, found its way to Cairo during the colonial period. The TownPlanning Act of 1909 encouraged local authorities to mark land for development, particularly in suburban areas, and to regulate both layout and density while reserving land for new highways.

Cairo’s urban development can be traced through distinct periods, the first of which is the Islamic Renaissance. The Abbasids, Fatimids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks established and developed Cairo to accommodate population growth and military needs. This period — between the 9th and 15th centuries — laid the foundation (literally) for what is now known as Historic Cairo.

The colonial influence of the 19th and 20th centuries: British and French colonial powers competed to control and shape Cairo’s urban landscape, introducing European modernist urbanization models. These new developments created a stark contrast to informal settlements and the dense quarters of the old city, intentionally pushing to accommodate exclusively middle- and upper-class residents.

The British occupation brought industrial-era urban planning practices that fundamentally altered Cairo’s infrastructure. British engineers introduced wide European-style avenues and city planning principles that expanded that capital’s footprint outwards.

French influence manifested in neoclassical and Beaux-Arts styles, evident in landmarks like the Cairo Opera House, and throughout neighborhoods like Zamalek. Heliopolis, developed by Belgian industrialist Édouard Empain, incorporated French-inspired planning principles that echoed Parisian aesthetics — and the social structure of French urban colonies.

The garden city movement: Pioneered by British urban planner Ebenezer Howard, town plans mirroring the 19th century garden city movement in Europe significantly influenced Cairo’s development. The Cairene neighborhoods of Garden City and Zamalek are case studies of this approach, combining generous green spaces with urban amenities. Architect José Lamba, contracted by the Nile Land and Agricultural Company — a European consortium with investors of Syro-Lebanese origin — worked on developing the Cairene garden city with direction from Syrian-Lebanese developer and financier Youssef Bey Cattaui.

But Downton Cairo — or Khedivial Cairo — stands as the most visible testament to European influence. Under his rule in the 19th century, Khedive Ismail aspired to create a “Paris along the Nile,” which resulted in the adoption of Haussmannian architecture — named after the French Baron Georges Eugène Haussman — characterized by geometric roads branching out from Tahrir Square, wide boulevards, tall windows, wrought iron balconies, and ornate cornices.

Contemporary Cairo’s major landmarks remain as symbols of British and French occupations. The Cairo Railway Station, Tahrir Square, the Abdin Place and other administrative buildings still exist as symbols of foreign influence in the city’s skyline. Although their architectural designs were mingled with older Islamic architectural influences, their overall looks remain majorly inspired from foreign influences.

Social segregation is another legacy of colonial architecture. One of the most profound influences on Cairo’s urban development was the introduction of spatial divisions based on class, ethnicity, and nationality. During the colonial period, foreigners predominantly occupied central areas like Zamalek and Maadi — the latter built by British banker Ernest Cassel in 1907 — while working-class Egyptians resided in informal areas such as Shubra and Old Cairo. This early segregation set a pattern that would influence the city’s development for generations to come.

Post-1952 urban development: After the 1952 revolution, new industrial design neighborhoods emerged under military government planning. El Mohandessin was designed specifically to attract people with the eponymous job title — engineers — and Nasr City to attract middle-class families who romanticized the idea of living in modern urbanized areas. Nasr City particularly exemplifies the era’s authoritarian high modernism, which saw plans of wide streets specifically for military displays during ceremonies, El Husseiny explained.

Today’s town plans have largely transformed into mixed commercial and residential zones, filled with shops, restaurants, cafés. While this evolution has created bustling and densely populated areas, it has also prompted residents with means to seek housing alternatives in the outskirts of the capital, areas like New Cairo or the Sixth of October City.

These older mixed-use neighborhoods possessed unique qualities absent in contemporary developments, Kareem Ibrahim, CEO and cofounder of urban developer Takween told Enterprise. They offered walkability, enhanced quality of life, and diverse social and economic environments that created the metaphorical town square, he noted. These characteristics, once common and inherent in traditional communities, have largely disappeared since the mid-20th century’s shift toward modernist planning approaches — a loss that makes neighborhoods like Zamalek, Maadi, Garden City, and Downtown Cairo particularly valuable today. But, Ibrahim added, credit for that model shouldn’t be attributed solely to colonial architecture — we had our “own” historic cities that had the same qualities as well.

The prospect of a less segregated Cairo appears increasingly distant. New developments, including New Cairo and the New Administrative Capital to the east, and Sixth of October to the west, continue the city’s outward expansion. These areas blend Western-style designs and cater primarily to upper-middle-class residents, while working-class Cairenes remain in Old Cairo, the city center, or in informal settlements. This development pattern has sparked ongoing debates about whether to preserve colonial-era architecture or return to indigenous design principles.

The migration to new communities, originally driven by wealthy residents seeking security and separation from less affluent communities, has evolved. According to Ibrahim, “people now choose gated communities primarily because they seek better governance.” This encompasses improved solid waste management, traffic control, land use planning, and parking systems — fundamental aspects of urban management that existing areas often struggle with.

Ibrahim advocates for a planning approach that reinterprets the successful qualities of 20th century urban plans and implements them for the 21st century. The goal shouldn’t be to replicate these historic neighborhoods, but to learn from their achievements.

So does a concrete definition of Egyptian architecture exist? El Husseiny offers a nuanced perspective, describing that the Egyptian urban landscape is an “interweave of the social fabric overlaying the physical urban fabric” — a complex mixture of community and construction. He makes the comparison that throughout Egypt’s history, there has never been a purely authentic Egyptian bloodline. “Being Egyptian is to belong to the world, to belong to the civilization that extends thousands of years,” he added, suggesting that Egypt’s architectural and cultural identity alike are inherently inclusive and adaptive, shaped by eras of global influences.

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